Guatemalan Journal of Psychology
ISSN: 2958-1524 DOI:hps://doi.org/10.57247/rgp.v1i1.22
35
Locus of control and aggression in University of San Carlos students, central campus
Locus de control y agresión en estudiantes de la Universidad de San Carlos, sede
central
Francisco José Ureta Morales
Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala
Mavís Rodriguez
Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala
[email protected]
[email protected]u.gt
Elena María Soto Solares
Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala
[email protected]
Abstract
The research problem addressed in this study is to know the levels of aggression and type of locus of control of the students of the
USAC, for which the present study was raised in 8 Academic Units. The Locus of Control (LOC) scale was applied electronically,
adapted for adults from the version for adolescents, including the “Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire” model. A descriptive,
cross-sectional and comparative design was applied, based on quantitative methodology. Likewise, a two-stage sampling was
applied, random selection of the 8 academic units and then cluster sampling in the classrooms of second, sixth and tenth semester
students, 1,344 students participated. In the internal LOC there are no differences by semester of studies (p>.050) and students
between 30 and 35 years old have a lower average (p<.50). For the external LOC of the second semester, it is higher and reduces
as the semesters of study progress (p<.050), and a student between 30 and 35 years of age with a higher average; the external LOC
increases with increasing age (p<.50). The aggression variable indicated that students in the tenth semester have a lower GPA
(p<.001) and from 30 to 35 years with less aggression, it decreases as age increases (p<.001). Results that coincide and contrast
with previous research consulted and will be a contribution to Guatemalan psychology; it is suggested to include it in the programs
of accompaniment and psychological attention of the students.
Keywords
Perception of control, internal LOC, external LOC, aggression, aggression evaluation
Resumen
El problema de investigación abordado en este estudio es conocer los niveles de agresión y tipo de locus de control de los
estudiantes de la USAC, por lo que se planteó el presente estudio en 8 Unidades Académicas. Se aplicaron por la vía electrónica
la escala de Locus de Control (LOC), adaptadas para adultos de la versión para adolescentes, incluyendo el modelo de
“Cuestionario de Agresión de Buss y Perry”. Se aplicó un diseño de tipo descriptivo, transversal y comparativo, con base en la
metodología cuantitativa. Así mismo, se aplicó un muestreo bietápico, selección aleatoria de las 8 unidades académicas y luego
muestreo por conglomerados en las aulas de estudiantes de segundo, sexto y décimo semestres, participaron 1,344 estudiantes.
En el LOC interno no hay diferencias por semestre de estudios (p>.050) y los estudiantes de 30 a 35 años lo tienen en menor
promedio (p<.50). Para el LOC externo del segundo semestre es mayor y se reduce al avanzar en los semestres de estudios
(p<.050), y estudiante de 30 a 35 años con mayor promedio; el LOC externo aumenta con mayor edad (p<.50). La variable
agresión indicó que los estudiantes del décimo semestre tienen menor promedio (p<.001) y de 30 a 35 años con menor agresión,
se reduce conforme aumenta la edad (p<.001). Resultados que coinciden y contrastan con anteriores investigaciones consultadas
y será un aporte a la psicología guatemalteca; se sugiere incluirlo en los programas de acompañamiento y atención psicológica de
los estudiantes.
Palabras clave
Percepción de control, LOC interno, LOC externo, agresión, evaluación agresión
Recibido: 08/08/2022
Aceptado: 04/10/20222
Publicado: 28/11/2022
Guatemalan Journal of Psychology
DOI:hps://doi.org/10.57247/rgp.v1i1.22 ISSN: 2958-1524
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Introduction
The variables of aggression and LOC are
poorly investigated by USAC students, only
one study was identified addressing fate
control in college students that included
USAC (Luna et al, 2021), both variables
have relevance to mental health. High levels
of aggression could increase aggressive
behaviors in the university setting and, have
implications for student performance. For
the LOC, it is necessary to identify the type
of LOC they present, internal or external, in
order to attend to the educational processes
as a reference element. It is also necessary
to inquire about both variables in specific
groups of students, workers and non-
workers, by age intervals and marital status.
These comparisons allow the identification
of those groups in need of mental health
care, as well as the planning programs and
projects of student care for success and
failure within the university environment.
The Locus of Control construct was
developed by Rotter in 1966 as quoted by
Visdómine-Lozano (2006):
If the person is able to perceive that the
event is contingent with his behavior or even
with his own permanent characteristics, it
will be understood to be a belief in internal
control, [on the other hand] when an effort
perceives a personal action, but not being
entirely contingent with it, in our culture it will
be perceived, as the result of luck, in other
words, therefore, it has been said to be a
belief in external control (p. 731).
Rotter developed a Locus of Control scale,
where reinforcement, reward, or gratification
can be recognized as crucial in the
acquisition and performance of skills,
abilities, and knowledge (Ureta et al., 2022,
p.13). However, the perception will vary
from person to person, depending on
whether the reinforcement is under the
control of others or the forces surrounding it.
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expressive variety, manifesting in multiple
ways (Carrazco and Gonzáles, 2006).
Most studies on this construct have been
conducted in psychiatric, forensic,
neurological, and criminological fields
(Castellano and Castellano, 2012).
Researchers do not have enough
instruments contextualized to Latin
American realities; therefore, they opt for
the use of international instruments (López
and Orpinas, 2012). It should be noted that
the school, family, and technological
environments are variables that promote
studies on aggression with the purpose of
countering high violence rates in Latin
American countries (Castellano & Alonso,
2006 as cited in Ureta et al., 2022, p. 18). In
the case of Guatemala, it is a little-studied
topic but has gained importance with studies
on aggression in school settings. A survey
was conducted with a sample of 18,780
sixth-grade students in 993 official
educational centers, of which 8% of the
students reported being constant victims of
group aggression, which is the most
common form of aggression (Gálvez-
Sobral, 2011).
There are studies that relate LOC and
aggression in Latin America and Spain. Niño
(2019) found a moderate positive correlation
between LOC and aggressive behavior in
psychology pre-professional practice
students in Peru. Bouquet and Reidl (2017)
analyzed some factors intervening in
aggressiveness in Mexican adults and
found that a lack of control, magical thinking,
inefficacy, and fatalism as components of
LOC are predictors of aggression. They
concluded that negative self-evaluation or a
lack of perception of control over the
environment, as well as personality
characteristics associated with emotional
instability and a tendency to stress, tend to
facilitate the development of not only
aggressive thought patterns but also
aggressive behaviors (Bouquet et al., 2017,
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resulted in a sample confidence value of
26.57, which is very low for generalizing to
the entire USAC central campus population,
so the analyses are confined to the obtained
sample only. The second stage was non-
random, based on convenience, as efforts
were made in each of the selected units to
have students in the second, sixth, and
tenth semesters of their degree programs
complete the instruments. Since
participation was voluntary for those who
expressed interest, the sampling was not
random.
The sample that provided the information
consisted of 1344 students from eight
randomly selected academic units at USAC:
the Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Sciences, the School of Science and
Technology of Physical Activity and Sports
(ECTAFIDE), the Faculty of Architecture, the
Faculty of Humanities, the Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science,
the Faculty of Economic Sciences, the
Faculty of Dentistry, and the School of
History. In terms of the sample selection
process and characteristics, it should be
noted that the participants were students
aged between 18 and 35, enrolled in the
second semester of 2021, in the second,
sixth, or tenth semester of their programs,
who provided voluntary consent for
participation through the virtual instrument.
Instruments
Sociodemographic Data Survey
At the beginning of the instruments, the
following sociodemographic variables were
included to specify the type of student who
completed them: whether they were
enrolled at USAC in the second semester of
2021, schedule, gender, academic unit,
employment status, semester of enrollment,
age, marital status, and cultural group.
Adolescent Locus of Control Scale
To assess the internal-external LOC of the
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is consistent with what the author (Brenes in
2009, cited by Smith-Castro in 2014)
presented. The internal consistency of the
instruments applied in the pilot and final
administration was analyzed using
Cronbach's Alpha, and since the questions
were more similar, there was a higher level
of internal consistency for the questions
within each instrument. This index should be
greater than or equal to 0.6. The formula can
be found in Celina and Campo in 2005, as
cited by Ureta (2021, p. 26).
For the final administration, communications
and visits were conducted with the
responsible individuals at the eight
randomly selected academic units. Once
positive responses were received, they
were sent the links for the participants to
complete the instruments online. These
links were placed on the virtual platforms of
each academic unit to ensure that they
would be completed by their students. Upon
completing the administration of the
instruments, a letter of appreciation was
sent to the participating academic units,
thanking them for the permissions and
support provided for the fieldwork.
Data Processing and Analysis
Both scales were placed on the
SurveyGizmo web platform to be filled out
by the students. After the data collection
period concluded, the database was
obtained in Excel format for analysis using
SPSS software. Data cleaning was
performed, and cases that did not meet the
established criteria were excluded. The
original source (online questionnaires) was
reviewed to identify outliers, missing values,
and some inconsistencies in the information
and data obtained.
The internal consistency of the instruments
in the final administration was calculate
using Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, with the
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the information obtained were not disclosed
to anyone outside the research team.
Ethical approval was obtained through the
Bioethics Committee for Health Research at
USAC prior to the execution of the study.
Results
The instruments were completed by 1,344
students who met the inclusion criteria as
previously mentioned. The sample was
predominantly composed of females, with
1,026 students, representing 76.3% (Table
1). The sample was drawn from students in
the eight selected academic units, including
the Faculty of Humanities, Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Economic
Sciences, Veterinary Medicine and Animal
Science, Dentistry, as well as the School of
History and ECTAFIDE.
Table 1. Students by gender and Academic Unit who responded to the instruments.
Academic Unit
Gender
Male
Female
Other
Total
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
Faculty of Humanities
83
6.2
577
42.9
0
0.0
660
49.1
Faculty of Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Science (FCQQFF)
98
7.3
275
20.5
0
0.0
373
27.8
Faculty of Architecture
34
2.5
55
4.1
1
0.1
90
6.7
ECTAFIDE
48
3.6
41
3.1
0
0.0
89
6.6
School of History
31
2.3
42
3.1
1
0.1
74
5.5
Faculty of Economic Sciences
12
0.9
19
1.4
0
0.0
31
2.3
Faculty Veterinary Medicine
and Animal Science (FMVZ)
8
0.6
8
0.6
0
0.0
16
1.2
Faculty of Dentistry
2
0.1
9
0.7
0
0.0
11
0.8
Total
316
23.5
1026a
76.3
2
0.1
1344
100.0
Note: Prepared by Ureta et al., 2022.
According to the results and analyses
conducted by Ureta et al. (2022), the
average internal LOC was 13.67, which is
low when compared to the maximum
possible score of 32 points, with each
question having a maximum score of 4. The
external LOC had an average of 21.87,
close to the scale's maximum of 28 points,
indicating a stronger orientation toward
external LOC in the sample. The average
score on the aggression scale was 59.75 out
of a maximum of 112 points, indicating
moderate aggression as it just surpasses the
halfway mark (Table 2).
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Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the measured variables on the scales.
Variables
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Scale
Maximuma
Standard
deviation
Total, internal LOC
1,342
8.00
27.00
13.67
32
3.68
Total, external LOC
1,341
7.00
28.00
21.87
28
3.84
Total, aggression scale
1,286
31.00
109.00
59.75
112
13.67
Note: a. This column represents the maximum possible score for each scale. Compiled by Ureta et al.,
2022.
Regarding the comparison of students'
internal LOC, the means of working
students and non-working students were
compared using a Student's t-test. Non-
working students (M=14.10, SD=3.75,
N=598) were compared to working students
(M=13.32, SD=3.58, N=744). Assuming
equal variances, F=0.747, t(1340) = 3.873,
p < .001, which indicates a statistically
significant difference between the two
means. Therefore, it can be concluded that
non-working students have a higher internal
LOC than working students, and the effect
size of this difference is moderate, with
Cohen's d of 0.77, 95% CI [0.38, 1.17].
Next, the average internal LOC was
compared with ANOVA based on the
students' semester of enrollment for three
different groups. Students on the annual
plan were not included as they were too few,
and their results might be unreliable, so they
were excluded from all comparisons. In the
second semester, the mean was
(M=13.782, SD=3.63, N=620), in the sixth
semester, it was (M=13.785, SD=3.72,
N=326), and in the tenth semester, it was
(M=13.400, SD=3.74, N=385). There was
no statistically significant difference
between the groups, and the effect size was
almost non-existent, F(2) = 1.478, p =
0.228, η² = 0.007. The assumption of
homogeneity of variances among the three
groups was verified (Levene F(2) = 0.406, p
= 0.666), indicating that the means were
equal. The Bonferroni post hoc test also
confirmed that there were no differences
between the three means.
The average internal LOC was compared
with ANOVA by student-reported marital
status for three different groups, widowed
students were not included because they are
very few and their results could be unreliable,
they were excluded from all comparisons.
Married students had an average (M=13.15,
SD=3.51, N=240), unmarried students had
an average (M=12.92, SD=3.24, N=71), and
single students had an average (M=13.84,
SD=3.72, N=1,029). A statistically significant
difference was observed between the
groups, with an almost non-existent effect
size, F(2) = 4.979, p = 0.007, η² = 0.002. The
assumption of homogeneity of variances
among the three groups was confirmed
(Levene F(2) = 1.127, p = 0.324), indicating
that the means were different. Bonferroni's
post hoc analysis indicated differences in the
means between married and single students
(p = 0.026), with single students having the
highest mean.
The average internal LOC was compared
with ANOVA based on the age reported by
the students, divided into three groups. The
group of 18 to 23 years had a mean of
(M=14.05, SD=3.80, N=587), the group of 24
to 29 years had a mean of (M=13.62,
SD=3.84, N=399), and the group of 30 to 35
years had a mean of (M=13.10, SD=3.14,
N=356). A statistically significant difference
was observed between the groups, and the
effect size was almost non-existent, F(2) =
7.528, p = 0.001, η² = 0.011. The assumption
of homogeneity of variances among the three
groups was not met (Levene F(2) = 8.473, p
= 0.001), indicating different means among
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the groups. The Bonferroni post hoc test
showed differences in means between
students aged 18 to 23 and those aged 30
to 35 (p = 0.001), with the latter having the
lowest mean. It could be concluded that
internal LOC decreases as age increases.
The next variable analyzed was the external
LOC of the students, the same comparisons
were made as with the internal LOC, first the
averages of those who work were
compared with those who do not with
Student's t test, the averages were those
who do not work (M=21.18, SD=3.90,
N=597) and those who do work (M=22.43,
SD=3.71, N=344). Assuming equal
variances, F= 1.326, t(1339) = 6.004, p <
.001, which indicates that the two averages
have a statistically significant difference,
this result showed that those who work have
a higher external LOC than those who do
not; the effect size of this difference is large,
Cohen's d=-1.25, 95% CI [-1.66, -.84].
Comparison of the average external LOC
was made with ANOVA according to the
semester taken by the students for three
different groups. In the second semester an
average was obtained (M=22.28, SD=3.52,
N=619), in the sixth semester it was
(M=21.62, SD=3.99, N=326) and in tenth
semester (M=21.49, SD=4.14, N=385). If a
statistically significant difference was
obtained between groups and the effect
size is almost nonexistent F (2) =6.218, p =
0.002, n²=.009, the assumption of
homogeneity of variances of the three
groups was not tested, Levene F (2) =
4.411, p = .012, indicating that the averages
are different. The Bonferroni post hoc test
was done which evidenced that the second
semester is different from the sixth and
tenth semesters (p=.026, p=.005), between
the average of the sixth and tenth
semesters there is no difference (p=1.00).
The second semester has the highest
average and decreases as the semesters
advance.
The average external LOC was compared
with ANOVA by students' marital status for
three different groups. The married reached
an average (M=23.07, SD=3.51, N=240) that
of the unmarried was (M=24.02, SD=3.24,
N=71) and the single (M=21.46, SD=3.72,
N=1,028). If a statistically significant
difference between groups was obtained and
the effect size is almost nonexistent F (2)
=30.034, p = 0.001, n²=.043, the assumption
of homogeneity of variances of the three
groups was tested, Levene F (2) = 1.127, p =
.324, indicating that the averages are
different. Carrying out the Bonferroni post
hoc analysis evidenced that if there are
differences in the averages of the unmarried
with the married and the united (p=.001,
p=.001), that of the united is equal to that of
the married (p=.178), the unmarried have the
lowest average external LOC.
External LOC was compared with ANOVA by
student age in three different groups. The
group from 18 to 23 years old has an average
(M=21.18, SD=3.75, N=586) the group from
24 to 29 years old was (M=21.75, SD=4.08,
N=399) and from 30 to 35 years old
(M=23.13, SD=3.40, N=356). If a statistically
significant difference was obtained between
groups and the effect size is almost
nonexistent F (2) =29.881, p = 0.001,
n²=.043, the assumption of homogeneity of
variances of the three groups was not
checked, Levene F (2) = 4.926, p = ,007,
indicating that the averages are different.
Carrying out the Bonferroni test showed that
there are differences in the averages of those
aged 18 to 23 and those aged 30 to 35
(p=.001), the latter having the highest
average, it could be affirmed that as age
increases, external LOC also increases.
The final variable analyzed was the students'
aggression level (answered by a smaller
number of students). The same comparisons
were made, including a Student's t-test for
the means of working and non-working
students. The mean for non-working students
(M=60.32, SD=3.90, N=574) was compared
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to that of working students (M=59.29,
SD=3.71, N=712). Assuming unequal
variances, F=7.695, t(1171.04) = 1.333, p <
.183, indicating no statistically significant
difference between the two means.
Surprisingly, working students had an
external LOC like that of non-working
students, with a large effect size, Cohen's d
of 1.032, 95% CI [-0.487, 2.553], although
the means showed no difference.
The comparison of the average aggression
level was performed using ANOVA based
on the students' semester of study for three
different groups. In the second semester, an
average of (M=60.94, SD=13.46, N=594)
was obtained, in the sixth semester, it was
(M=60.24, SD=13.42, N=311), and in the
tenth semester, it was (M=57.35, SD=13.96,
N=370). A statistically significant difference
was observed between the groups, with an
almost negligible effect size, F (2) = 8.226,
p = 0.001, η² = 0.013. The assumption of
variance homogeneity among the three
groups was confirmed (Levene F (2) =
0.138, p = 0.872), indicating that the means
were different. The Bonferroni post hoc test
revealed that the mean of the tenth
semester was different from that of the sixth
and second semesters (p = 0.017, p =
0.001), but there were no differences
between the mean of the sixth and second
semesters (p = 1.00).
The tenth semester had the lowest average
aggression, significantly decreasing in the
last semester compared to the previous
ones.
The average aggression level was also
compared with ANOVA based on the marital
status of the students. Married students had
an average (M=56.16, SD=13.23, N=231),
the cohabiting (unidos) students had an
average (M=61.63, SD=14.52, N=69), and
the single students had an average
(M=60.46, SD=13.57, N=984). A statistically
significant difference was observed
between the groups, with a nearly negligible
effect size, F (2) = 10.061, p = 0.016, η² =
0.043. The assumption of variance
homogeneity among the three groups was
confirmed (Levene F (2) = 0.343, p = 0.709),
indicating that the means were different. The
Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated
differences in the means between married
students and single students, as well as
between cohabiting and single students (p =
0.001, p = 0.010). The cohabiting students
had the highest average aggression, while
the cohabiting and married students had
similar levels (p = 1.000).
The final comparison of aggression was
based on the students' age, using ANOVA for
three groups. The group of students aged 18
to 23 had an average of (M=62.13, SD=3.75,
N=559), the group of students aged 24 to 29
had an average of (M=58.88, SD=4.08,
N=381), and the group of students aged 30
to 35 had an average of (M=56.88, SD=3.40,
N=346). A statistically significant difference
was observed between the groups, with an
almost negligible effect size, F (2) = 17.294,
p = 0.001, η² = 0.026. The assumption of
variance homogeneity among the three
groups was not met (Levene F (2) = 0.526, p
= 0.591), indicating that the means were
different. The Bonferroni test showed
differences in the means between students
aged 18 to 23 and the other two groups (p =
0.001, p = 0.001). The mean of students aged
24 to 29 was like the mean of students aged
30 to 35 (p = 0.179), with the latter having the
lowest average, suggesting that aggression
decreases as age increases. Variations and
trends were identified in the studied
variables, with increases or decreases by
age group and semester of study. These
trends were reflected in internal LOC
decreasing, external LOC increasing, and
aggression decreasing (Figure 1). All effect
sizes calculated in the comparisons are small
or non-existent, except for internal LOC
between working and non-working students,
which had a large effect size. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the remaining
differences are influenced by the size of the
samples and compared groups.
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Figure 1. Averages of Internal LOC, External LOC, and Aggression by Age Groups
Discussion
The results obtained apply to the levels and
status of the variables only within the
sample of 1,344 participating students.
While the initial sampling of Academic Units
was random, the instruments were
completed by students who expressed
interest in participating in the study. The
limited sample confidence value prevents
the generalization of these findings to the
central campus of USAC. The results
represent an initial starting point, shedding
light on these two variables among USAC
students. The Locus of Control (LOC)
variable comprises two dimensions: internal
and external LOC. The average internal
LOC within the total sample was 13.67,
which is relatively low. This result
Total Locus of Internal
Control
Total External Locus of
Control
Total Aggression scale
Semester
Semester
Semester
Semester
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increased internal LOC, which is also a
predictor of academic success (Mayora-
Pernía and Fernández, 2015).
Comparisons of marital status concluded
that singles have the highest internal LOC,
in line with the findings of Padilla and Díaz
Loving (2011) that Mexican single youths
have a high internal LOC that regulates their
sexual behaviors. Regarding age, the
research results indicated that the group of
younger students (ages 18 to 23) has the
highest internal LOC, contrasting with
Laborín et al. (2008), who suggested that
younger individuals have lower internal
LOC. Other studies also support the notion
that younger people have lower internal
LOC, such as Chubb, Fertman & Ross
(1997); Reeh, Hiebert, and Cairns (1998),
as cited by Laborín et al. (2008).
According to Ureta et al. (2022): When
external LOC was analyzed, it was found to
be slightly higher in comparison to internal
LOC, with an average of 21.87,
approaching the 28 maximum points on the
scale. The sample of responding USAC
central students shows a greater tendency
toward external LOC (Ureta et al., 2022, p.
55).
When analyzing external LOC in relation to
the semesters being pursued, evidence was
found that a higher semester corresponds
to a lower external LOC. These results align
with Laborín et al. (2008), who reported that
higher education and university studies are
associated with an increase in internal LOC.
Comparisons of external LOC by marital
status indicated that married and cohabiting
individuals have a higher average than
singles, in line with the findings of Padilla
and Loving-Díaz (2011), who reported that
Mexican youths in stable relationships have
higher external LOC.
Regarding age, the results of this research
indicate that as age increases, external
LOC also increases, in contrast to Laborín
Guatemalan Journal of Psychology
DOI:hps://doi.org/10.57247/rgp.v1i1.22 ISSN: 2958-1524
46
among their parents, sexual and verbal-
emotional aggression towards their partners
in university environments, and adults in
relationships with aggressive tendencies
towards their partners (Redondo, Inglés,
and García, 2017; Rojas-Solís, 2013; Rey-
Anacona, 2017; Rojas-Solís and
Carpintero, 2011; Cuenca and Graña,
2016). The moderate level of aggression
found in the university students in the
sample does not appear to be a
psychopathological symptom of clinical
interest but may be part of the modal or
basic personality of Guatemalans. This
concept is based on the adaptation of
individuals' basic personality to the culture
and society in which they live, integrating
within a specific culture and founded on
common experiences shared by the people
of a society, mediated by the personal
characteristics produced by such
experiences (Bogaert, 2016; Cueva, 2016).
As final reflections, it can be noted that the
results either align with or contrast with
those reported by other authors.
Specifically, the findings that do not coincide
with other research include low internal
locus of control (LOC) among university
students, low internal LOC among working
students, equivalent internal LOC between
students in the early semesters and those in
advanced studies, younger students with
higher internal LOC, lower external LOC
among older students, and an equal level of
aggression among non-working students.
Possible explanations for these disparities
could be attributed, first and foremost, to a
sampling error, including students from
other academic units, which could alter
these results. Regarding the low average of
internal LOC among students, it might be
because in other countries, university
studies genuinely foster critical and
scientific thinking, which does not align with
an external LOC prioritizing personal
decisions as responsible for the outcomes
in their lives. Concerning the low level of
aggression among working students,
Guatemalan Journal of Psychology
ISSN: 2958-1524 DOI:hps://doi.org/10.57247/rgp.v1i1.22
47
the responsibility that they themselves
control their lives, assuming the positive or
negative consequences of their actions.
Their own successes and failures are, for
the most part, the result of their effort and
actions.
Acknowledgments
We thank the General Directorate of
Research (DIGI), the Coordinating and
Promoting Council for Research at the
University of San Carlos (CONCIUSAC),
and the Interdisciplinary Health Research
University Program for funding this research
under code B3-2021 during the year 2021.
We extend our gratitude to the authorities of
the School of Psychological Sciences for
their unwavering support during the conduct
of this research, as well as their
Professional Research Unit for their
guidance and suggestions for its
implementation. Finally, we appreciate the 8
Academic Units that authorized the
participation of the 1,344 students who
comprised the study sample.
Authors' Contributions
Coordination, drafting, and review of the
document: FU
Design of data collection or fieldwork: all
authors
Data collection or contribution and
fieldwork: MR, ES
Data cleaning, systematization, analysis, or
data visualization: FU
Participation in data analysis, structure, and
document writing: all authors.
Supplementary Materials
There are no supplementary materials.
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Mavis Rodríguez has completed her
master's degree in research at USAC
and holds a Bachelor's degree in
Psychology from USAC. She is an
existential phenomenological therapist
with training from Circulo Existencial in
Mexico and ALPE in Argentina. She
works as a university lecturer at the
School of Psychological Sciences at
USAC, reviews theses, and has
participated in two research projects
funded by DIGI, with another one in
progress.
Elena María Soto Solares graduated with a
Bachelor's degree in Psychology from
the University of San Carlos of
Guatemala. She holds a Master's degree
in Clinical Psychology and Mental Health
from the Universidad Mariano Gálvez.
Elena works as a thesis reviewer and
lecturer at the Center for Research in
Psychology (CIEPs), School of
Psychological Sciences, University of
San Carlos of Guatemala.
Research Funding
This research was partially funded by the
General Directorate of Research (DIGI) at
the University of San Carlos of Guatemala.
Conflict of Interest Statement
I declare that I have no conflicts of interest
that may have influenced the obtained
results or the proposed interpretations.
Informed Consent Statement
The study was conducted in accordance
with the Code of Ethics and Good Editorial
Practices for Publication.